4 The literature review, 2nd draft
(theories from graphic design, the people, their issues and broadcast design)
This research, being focused on a visual development of identity in motion design, is effectively based on the principles and theories of graphic design. As motion design can be visualised as graphic design with the added dimension of time, the literature of graphic deign forms a significant portion of the resources.
'Graphic design', the broadly reaching term currently used to describe a vast array of work was first coined in 1922 by 'William Addison Dwiggins'. His view of the role played by the graphic designer was somewhat constricted in comparison to our modern understanding. 'Super-printing' was an alternative term he occasionally used. "The printing designers whole duty is to make clear presentation of the message - to get the important statements forward and the minor parts placed so that they will not be overlooked." (Quentin Newark (2002)) He is describing the specific discipline of layout. The main aims of this, in his view, was to get the message across in the most efficient and effective way.
His approach, developed through a career of commercial messages, contrasted that of Francis Meynell, a poet and printer who dealt with literature including Shakespeare. In a piece entitled 'With twenty-six soldiers of lead I have conquered the world' Meynells aesthetic leaning is reflected.
"All the heights and depths and breadths of tangible and natural things - landscapes, sunsets, the scent of hay, the hum of bees, the beauty of which belongs to eyelids (and is falsely ascribed to eyes); all the immeasurable emotions and motions of the human mind, to which there seems no bound; ugly and terrible and mysterious thoughts and things, as well as beautiful - are all compassed, restrained, ordered in a trifling jumble of letters. Twenty-six signs!" (Quentin Newark (2002))
The opinions of these two men represent "the poles between which the graphic designer must choose a position." (Quentin Newark (2002)). Function versus Aesthetic, an opposition of design philosophies which applies universally to any kind of creative endeavour. This conflict has generated the more recognisable phrase, now an overused cliché; 'form follows function', derived from Louis Sullivans statement in 1896 of "form ever follows function".
This effectively became a motto of modernist architecture in the 20th century alongside 'less is more' as decorative design saw its demise in the face of Bauhaus philosophy. After a time modernism gave way to postmodernism, a reaction against impersonal blandness in favour of personal expression and variety. Now, in the wake of globalisation, the tide is turning again with a 'modern' take on 'modernism'. Currently the most visible and influential force is Apple with a design philosophy being driven by Jonathan Ives and his aim to refine until there can be no more refinements.
This ebb and flow of trends between form and function is felt across everything touched by design but does not dictate the choices made by every designer. If these movements could dictate choice they would have no opposition and therefor no development. In design there is always a choice and therefor an issue to be dealt with, assuming the creative is aware of, and considering, his or her design philosophies.
In attempting to understand and apply the philosophies and theories of design, much of the literature and lines of thought can be off-putting in their complexity. This is especially true of aesthetics in the writing of Immanuel Kant. Without a basic understanding of his philosophical project and its aims it would not be possible to understand his aesthetic theories. His project can be summed up as "trying to establish a transcendental critique of the nature and possibilities of mental life in general". Mental life here is 'thinking' and the transcendental critique is an analysis of the necessary elements and principles of how 'thinking' works or how it plays out in life through such things as our will or desires, aspirations or reasoning. Kant is a heavily methodological philosopher and addresses the subject of aesthetics in a deeply technical way. This produces results so abstract and obscure as to be imposingly difficult to follow or relate to. His theory of beauty comprises of 'four moments'; quality, quantity, relation and modality.
The 'quality' of beauty is a question of how it is held in the mind, how is the thought of beauty what it is. Kant describes it as a subjective experience that is also universal. When we find an object beautiful, it is our own experience in which we find this beauty. But when we think of this object we think of it being beautiful in a general sense. The quantity of beauty is how the thought is distinguished from other thoughts in the mind. This relates to the way in which it is universally subjective. Beauty is not the thought of an object, it is a sense that purveys through objects. An object is not beauty but it can be beautiful. The relation of beauty is the question of which part of the mind is this feeling related to. Most 'things' in the mind are what they are because they can be conceptually linked to other 'things', for example: movement is the orientation or position of one object changing relative to another. Beauty is different in that the existence of beauty is generated by something being beautiful. In Kants words it has a 'purposive purposelessness'. Finally the modality of beauty describes the way in which it is a reflection of our senses upon themselves creating new set of possibilities, meanings and desires. To truly understand Kants aesthetic theories and philosophical aims would require an in depth study and analysis for which this project does not have enough scope although it is wise to take note of the impact Kant has had on design theory.
In the early 20th century the Gestalt school of thought sought to deconstruct the perception of objects into its elemental parts. The work of Kurt Kuffka, Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Kohler was a step towards the practical application of aesthetic philosophy. The findings of the 'Gestaltists' were organised into five laws for use in design by John W Cataldo who sought to "provide the graphic designer with a reliable psychological basis for the spatial organisation of graphic information." These laws set out clear definitions of the elements in design and the effects of their application, an attractive alternative to working through aesthetic philosophies. They are, briefly, as follows.
The first law: equilibrium. It describes the tendency of cognitive processes to simplify the perception of an object. Moving its constituent parts towards an equilibrium. It is similar to the second law of thermodynamics with objects tending towards a state of higher entropy.
The second law: closure. If a graphic figure is left incomplete, there is a desire to close it. This stems from closed areas as having a higher perceived stability. Incomplete or broken graphics portray instability, even hostility.
The third law: continuation. A straight line can appear to extend past its physical constraints and a curve can form the image of a circle where one is not drawn. A common employment of this concept is the dotted line. It is also related to the stroboscopic effect of animation.
The fourth law: similarity. What is perceived by the eye is constantly organised into patterns. Objects of similar size, shape, colour and direction will be grouped as one entity. This law is closely related to the fifth.
The fifth law: proximity. When objects are arranged in close proximity they will, again, be grouped as one entity. This law draws from a general gestalt principle that the character of an object is partially dependant on its surrounding field or context.
One modern philosopher of aesthetics, Denis Dutton, presented a view of aesthetics that is simplified yet further in a talk entitled 'A Darwinian Theory of Beauty'. He gives a very compelling reasoning behind why some things are more visually desirable than others, summing up with the statement: "we find beauty in something done well" (Dutton (2010)).
Today there appears a misconception that the mastery of software is in its self a mastery of graphic design. Technical advances have overtaken and are leaving behind the basics of design; shape, line, colour and typography. "The computer has revolutionised the design process. It has made the act of designing easier, and in many ways it has improved the way we design things. Yet in other respects it has made design more formulaic, and it has standardised the act of designing" (Adrian Shaughnessy(2005)) The seemingly limitless potential of technology and the problems which accompany it increase the need for an understanding of design fundamentals. "The availability of technology and the advances in imaging and production techniques will not cover up what is essentially a bad design" (Alan Hashimoto(2007))
Every subject mentioned in this proposal, and more, make up a landscape through which a creative must make his way. A designer must also, considering the convergence of technology and design tools, "command a baffling array of professional abilities that include, among others, the typographic chops of a print designer, the motion and timing smarts of an animator, the stylistic rendering talents of an illustrator, the narrative skills of a writer or editor, the music sensibilities of a composer and the cinematic and live action directing abilities of a film maker." (Kyle Cooper (2006)) A second implication of this convergence is in the format of the design product. It must possess a flexibility that will allow cross platform application. These challenges constantly test a studios ability and are becoming an increasingly crucial factor in its success.
"Motherless Brooklyn" Title Sequence Proposal from Remy Le Rumeur on Vimeo.